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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Discrétisation</span></h1>
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<p>En <a href="Math%C3%A9matiques_appliqu%C3%A9es" title="Mathématiques appliquées">mathématiques appliquées</a>, la <b>discrétisation</b> est la transposition d'un état <span class="page_h"><a href="Continu" class="mw-disambig" title="Continu">continu</a></span> (fonction, modèle, variable, équation) en un équivalent <span class="page_h"><a href="Discret" class="mw-disambig" title="Discret">discret</a></span>. Ce procédé constitue en général une étape préliminaire à la résolution numérique d'un problème ou sa programmation sur machine. Un cas particulier est la dichotomisation où le nombre de classes discrètes est 2, où on peut approcher une variable continue en une variable binaire.
</p><p>La discrétisation est aussi reliée aux <a href="Math%C3%A9matiques_discr%C3%A8tes" title="Mathématiques discrètes">mathématiques discrètes</a>, et compte parmi les composantes importantes de la programmation granulaire. Dans le contexte, la <i>discrétisation</i> peut renvoyer à la modification de la <i>granularité</i>, quand plusieurs variables discrètes sont réunies ou des catégories discrètes fusionnées.
</p><p>Discrétiser des données continues engendre systématiquement une erreur de discrétisation&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/discretization_error" class="extiw external" title="en:discretization error"><span class="indicateur-langue" title="Article en anglais&nbsp;: «&nbsp;discretization error&nbsp;»">(en)</span></a>. Un des objectifs est donc de concevoir un modèle discret qui minimise au mieux cette erreur.
</p><p><span id="Discrétisation-quantification"></span> Il ne faut pas confondre <i>discrétisation</i> et <i><a href="Quantification_(signal)" title="Quantification (signal)">quantification</a></i>.
</p><p>On compte également la méthode d'Euler-Maruyama&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler-Maruyama_method" class="extiw external" title="en:Euler-Maruyama method"><span class="indicateur-langue" title="Article en anglais&nbsp;: «&nbsp;Euler-Maruyama method&nbsp;»">(en)</span></a> et le <a href="Bloqueur_(traitement_du_signal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloqueur (traitement du signal)">bloqueur d'ordre 0</a> parmi les méthodes de discrétisation.
</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discrétisation_de_modèles_d'état_linéaires"><span id="Discr.C3.A9tisation_de_mod.C3.A8les_d.27.C3.A9tat_lin.C3.A9aires"></span>Discrétisation de modèles d'état linéaires</h2></div>
<p>La discrétisation apparait dans la transformation d'<a href="%C3%89quation_diff%C3%A9rentielle" title="Équation différentielle">équations différentielles</a> continues en équations aux différence discrètes.
</p><p>On considère le modèle d'état en espace, continu en temps&nbsp;:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dot {\mathbf {x} }}(t)&amp;=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)+\mathbf {w} (t)\\\mathbf {y} (t)&amp;=\mathbf {C} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {D} \mathbf {u} (t)+\mathbf {v} (t)\end{aligned}}}">
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<mi mathvariant="bold">y</mi>
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<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
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<mtd>
<mi></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
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<mi mathvariant="bold">C</mi>
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<mi mathvariant="bold">v</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dot {\mathbf {x} }}(t)&amp;=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)+\mathbf {w} (t)\\\mathbf {y} (t)&amp;=\mathbf {C} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {D} \mathbf {u} (t)+\mathbf {v} (t)\end{aligned}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/af97d9d221f454a486046a7c5e738a4ec476024e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:30.285ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dot {\mathbf {x} }}(t)&amp;=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)+\mathbf {w} (t)\\\mathbf {y} (t)&amp;=\mathbf {C} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {D} \mathbf {u} (t)+\mathbf {v} (t)\end{aligned}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>où <span class="texhtml"><b>v</b></span> et <span class="texhtml"><b>w</b></span> sont des sources de <a href="Bruit_blanc" title="Bruit blanc">bruit blanc</a> avec une <a href="Densit%C3%A9_spectrale_de_puissance" title="Densité spectrale de puissance">densité spectrale de puissance</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {w} (t)\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {Q} )\ ,\ \mathbf {v} (t)\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {R} )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mi mathvariant="bold">w</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {w} (t)\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {Q} )\ ,\ \mathbf {v} (t)\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {R} )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/768c8c25f3fa88b68c99432a9d4fab6cee5b3a77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:33.605ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {w} (t)\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {Q} )\ ,\ \mathbf {v} (t)\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {R} )}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>peuvent être discrétisées, en supposant que le signal <span class="texhtml"><b>u</b></span> est un bloqueur d'ordre 0 et une <a href="Int%C3%A9gration_continue" title="Intégration continue">intégration continue</a> pour le bruit <span class="texhtml"><b>v</b></span>, donnant
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {x} [k+1]&amp;=\mathbf {A} _{d}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {B} _{d}\mathbf {u} [k]+\mathbf {w} [k]\\\mathbf {y} [k]&amp;=\mathbf {C} _{d}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {D} _{d}\mathbf {u} [k]+\mathbf {v} [k]\end{aligned}}}">
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<mi mathvariant="bold">y</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {x} [k+1]&amp;=\mathbf {A} _{d}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {B} _{d}\mathbf {u} [k]+\mathbf {w} [k]\\\mathbf {y} [k]&amp;=\mathbf {C} _{d}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {D} _{d}\mathbf {u} [k]+\mathbf {v} [k]\end{aligned}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/28e30f4a75f48ce6544a3b54ffcf752e15d1781b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:35.896ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {x} [k+1]&amp;=\mathbf {A} _{d}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {B} _{d}\mathbf {u} [k]+\mathbf {w} [k]\\\mathbf {y} [k]&amp;=\mathbf {C} _{d}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {D} _{d}\mathbf {u} [k]+\mathbf {v} [k]\end{aligned}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>avec des covariances
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {w} [k]\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {Q} _{d})\ ,\ \mathbf {v} [k]\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {R} _{d})}">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {w} [k]\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {Q} _{d})\ ,\ \mathbf {v} [k]\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {R} _{d})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/24b2e94a32272a073cdbb67643d557a0f161bd82.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:35.501ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {w} [k]\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {Q} _{d})\ ,\ \mathbf {v} [k]\sim {\mathcal {N}}(0,\mathbf {R} _{d})}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>où
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{d}=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}={\mathcal {L}}^{-1}\{(s\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {A} )^{-1}\}_{t=T}}">
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</mstyle>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{d}=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}={\mathcal {L}}^{-1}\{(s\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {A} )^{-1}\}_{t=T}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/059c5d61328d932f1c3f3f22365648f036ca6881.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:33.787ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{d}=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}={\mathcal {L}}^{-1}\{(s\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {A} )^{-1}\}_{t=T}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} _{d}=\left(\int _{\tau =0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathrm {d} \tau \right)\mathbf {B} =\mathbf {A} ^{-1}(\mathbf {A} _{d}-I)\mathbf {B} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>I</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} _{d}=\left(\int _{\tau =0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathrm {d} \tau \right)\mathbf {B} =\mathbf {A} ^{-1}(\mathbf {A} _{d}-I)\mathbf {B} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3f434deead271ed877d07abe0dc248654de28d91.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:40.985ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} _{d}=\left(\int _{\tau =0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathrm {d} \tau \right)\mathbf {B} =\mathbf {A} ^{-1}(\mathbf {A} _{d}-I)\mathbf {B} }" loading="lazy"></span>, si <span class="texhtml"><b>A</b></span> est <a href="Matrice_inversible" title="Matrice inversible">régulière</a></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {C} _{d}=\mathbf {C} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">C</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {C} _{d}=\mathbf {C} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/53fcd93bf437d314bcf35f203080ca5ef82f7031.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.053ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {C} _{d}=\mathbf {C} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} _{d}=\mathbf {D} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">D</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">D</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} _{d}=\mathbf {D} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f9fe1562eac519901cb3545b8f41ddf34951cb9c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.29ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} _{d}=\mathbf {D} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}=\int _{\tau =0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathbf {Q} \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} ^{\top }\tau }\,\mathrm {d} \tau }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">⊤<!-- ⊤ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}=\int _{\tau =0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathbf {Q} \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} ^{\top }\tau }\,\mathrm {d} \tau }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7acc333a24da9c3b2bef01e9df35fee694fa27da.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:24.237ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}=\int _{\tau =0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathbf {Q} \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} ^{\top }\tau }\,\mathrm {d} \tau }" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} _{d}={\frac {1}{T}}\mathbf {R} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">R</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mi>T</mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">R</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} _{d}={\frac {1}{T}}\mathbf {R} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9bf648494e4448699d4135aba31f82b2d634789e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:10.669ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} _{d}={\frac {1}{T}}\mathbf {R} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>et <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span> est le temps d'échantillonnage, et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} ^{\top }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">⊤<!-- ⊤ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} ^{\top }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/fad17fef126eb0106f72750a43341adc6a6d3f45.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.53ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} ^{\top }}" loading="lazy"></span> est la <a href="Matrice_transpos%C3%A9e" title="Matrice transposée">transposée</a> de <span class="texhtml"><b>A</b></span>.
</p><p>Une astuce pour calculer <span class="texhtml"><b>A</b><sub><i>d</i></sub></span> et <span class="texhtml"><b>B</b><sub><i>d</i></sub></span> en une étape consiste à utiliser la propriété<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup title="page(s)" class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:p. 215</sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \exp \left(T{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {A} &amp;\mathbf {B} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {0} \end{bmatrix}}\right)={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {M_{11}} &amp;\mathbf {M_{12}} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {I} \end{bmatrix}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">0</mn>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">0</mn>
</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="bold">M</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">11</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="bold">M</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">12</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">0</mn>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">I</mi>
</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \exp \left(T{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {A} &amp;\mathbf {B} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {0} \end{bmatrix}}\right)={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {M_{11}} &amp;\mathbf {M_{12}} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {I} \end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9535861dbbc8875991fd4f54392d154538e2fe3a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:36.007ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \exp \left(T{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {A} &amp;\mathbf {B} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {0} \end{bmatrix}}\right)={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {M_{11}} &amp;\mathbf {M_{12}} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {I} \end{bmatrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>et donc
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{d}=\mathbf {M} _{11},\quad \mathbf {B} _{d}=\mathbf {M} _{12}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">M</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>11</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">M</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>12</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{d}=\mathbf {M} _{11},\quad \mathbf {B} _{d}=\mathbf {M} _{12}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1d377759eed635df46c0aaeac63073450c0c452e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:25.132ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{d}=\mathbf {M} _{11},\quad \mathbf {B} _{d}=\mathbf {M} _{12}.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrétisation_de_bruits"><span id="Discr.C3.A9tisation_de_bruits"></span>Discrétisation de bruits</h3></div>
<p>L'évaluation numérique de <span class="texhtml"><b>Q</b><sub><i>d</i></sub></span> est rendue plus délicate avec l'intégrale d'une exponentielle de matrice. On peut la calculer en deux temps, d'abord la construction de la matrice, puis le calcul de son exponentielle<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\begin{bmatrix}-\mathbf {A} &amp;\mathbf {Q} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {A} ^{\top }\end{bmatrix}}T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">F</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi>
</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">0</mn>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">⊤<!-- ⊤ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\begin{bmatrix}-\mathbf {A} &amp;\mathbf {Q} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {A} ^{\top }\end{bmatrix}}T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4291881bd44601fed07716ebf3f71fac91344e81.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:19.304ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\begin{bmatrix}-\mathbf {A} &amp;\mathbf {Q} \\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {A} ^{\top }\end{bmatrix}}T}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {G} =\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {F} }={\begin{bmatrix}\dots &amp;\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d}\\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\top }\end{bmatrix}}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">G</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">F</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">0</mn>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">⊤<!-- ⊤ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {G} =\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {F} }={\begin{bmatrix}\dots &amp;\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d}\\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\top }\end{bmatrix}}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/30e541e280df60809987ee7d65e2e358e2f435ca.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:27.359ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {G} =\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {F} }={\begin{bmatrix}\dots &amp;\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d}\\\mathbf {0} &amp;\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\top }\end{bmatrix}}.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Le bruit discrétisé est ensuite évalué en multipliant la transposée du bloc en bas à droite de <span class="texhtml"><b>G</b></span> avec celui en haut à droite&nbsp;:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}=(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\top })^{\top }(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d})=\mathbf {A} _{d}(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d}).}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">⊤<!-- ⊤ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">⊤<!-- ⊤ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">Q</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}=(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\top })^{\top }(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d})=\mathbf {A} _{d}(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d}).}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1070faa08739c2c1f6183e05db7f0aa9ed3063ea.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:38.428ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}=(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\top })^{\top }(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d})=\mathbf {A} _{d}(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d}).}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dérivation"><span id="D.C3.A9rivation"></span>Dérivation</h3></div>
<p>En partant du modèle continu
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\dot {x}} (t)=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
<mo mathvariant="bold">˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {\dot {x}} (t)=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/07382ee6e79626aa17701671f1449132afbffe99.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.113ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {\dot {x}} (t)=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>on sait que l'<a href="Exponentielle_de_matrice" class="mw-redirect" title="Exponentielle de matrice">exponentielle de matrice</a> est
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}=\mathbf {A} \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {A} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}=\mathbf {A} \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {A} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ab65e33af57568c0b026dcb9ecdfc8d2fbc22f54.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:23.063ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}=\mathbf {A} \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {A} }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>et en multipliant à gauche le modèle&nbsp;:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {\dot {x}} (t)=\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
<mo mathvariant="bold">˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {\dot {x}} (t)=\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3404ed623ea9d9522e1fbf3a20e1d0d205cdb5f7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:35.808ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {\dot {x}} (t)=\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>on reconnait
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}(\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (t))=\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}(\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (t))=\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/730ebe38581b660f29e4837bdf9b8f67ca799d95.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:27.101ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}(\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (t))=\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>L'intégration donne ainsi
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (t)-\mathrm {e} ^{0}\mathbf {x} (0)=\int _{0}^{t}\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">u</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (t)-\mathrm {e} ^{0}\mathbf {x} (0)=\int _{0}^{t}\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/00d0cfaffbfab48f0640dd889b00a962e3619e89.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:38.81ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (t)-\mathrm {e} ^{0}\mathbf {x} (0)=\int _{0}^{t}\mathrm {e} ^{-\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (t)=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{t}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (t-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">x</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="bold">A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (t)=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{t}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (t-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3f9333fc84cdcd794fef571baef54e6518cf9948.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:37.318ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (t)=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{t}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (t-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>ce qui est une solution analytique du modèle continu.
</p><p>On veut désormais discrétiser cette expression. On suppose <span class="texhtml"><b>u</b></span> <a href="R%C3%A9gularit%C3%A9_par_morceaux" title="Régularité par morceaux">constante</a> sur chaque pas de temps.
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k]\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \mathbf {x} (kT)=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} kT}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{kT}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k]\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \mathbf {x} (kT)=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} kT}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{kT}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bcaf40ead3536b28527e25eb610f3cc518b88977.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:50.918ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k]\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \mathbf {x} (kT)=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} kT}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{kT}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k+1]=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (k+1)T}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{(k+1)T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} ((k+1)T-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau =\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\left[\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} kT}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{kT}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau \right]+\int _{kT}^{(k+1)T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT+T-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k+1]=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (k+1)T}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{(k+1)T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} ((k+1)T-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau =\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\left[\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} kT}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{kT}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau \right]+\int _{kT}^{(k+1)T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT+T-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f17fcf8d1868ca16fcb8f892eedb707f1d0cfeca.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:130.932ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k+1]=\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (k+1)T}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{(k+1)T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} ((k+1)T-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau =\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\left[\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} kT}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{kT}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau \right]+\int _{kT}^{(k+1)T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} (kT+T-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>On reconnait l'expression entre crochets dans le premier terme comme <span class="texhtml"><b>x</b>[<i>k</i>]</span>, et le second terme peut être simplifié en faisant la substitution <span class="texhtml"><i>v</i>(τ) = <i>kT</i> + <i>T</i> – τ</span>, ce qui permet <span class="texhtml">d τ = – d <i>v</i></span>. On suppose aussi que <span class="texhtml"><b>u</b></span> est constante dans l'intégrale, ce qui donne&nbsp;:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {x} [k+1]&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]-\left(\int _{v(kT)}^{v((k+1)T)}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]-\left(\int _{T}^{0}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]+\left(\int _{0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {A} ^{-1}\left(\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}-\mathbf {I} \right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\end{aligned}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {x} [k+1]&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]-\left(\int _{v(kT)}^{v((k+1)T)}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]-\left(\int _{T}^{0}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]+\left(\int _{0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {A} ^{-1}\left(\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}-\mathbf {I} \right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\end{aligned}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1a4cc157ce4f17d4b10d1342feb44305a4e8c9cf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -11.254ex; margin-bottom: -0.251ex; width:53.185ex; height:24.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {x} [k+1]&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]-\left(\int _{v(kT)}^{v((k+1)T)}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]-\left(\int _{T}^{0}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]+\left(\int _{0}^{T}\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} v}\,\mathrm {d} v\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\\&amp;=&amp;\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} [k]+\mathbf {A} ^{-1}\left(\mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}-\mathbf {I} \right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k]\end{aligned}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>qui est une solution exacte du problème de discrétisation.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approximations">Approximations</h3></div>
<p>Une discrétisation exacte peut parfois être impossible à cause d'une exponentielle de matrice lourde et des étapes d'intégrations. Il devient alors plus simple de calculer un modèle discret approché, basé sur de petits pas de temps de sorte qu'on ait <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \mathbf {I} +\mathbf {A} T}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \mathbf {I} +\mathbf {A} T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ec18f7ef9a3194ab9ac11a0d5f20fad16df472dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:14.458ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \mathbf {I} +\mathbf {A} T}" loading="lazy"></span>. La solution approchée devient alors&nbsp;:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k+1]\approx (\mathbf {I} +\mathbf {A} T)\mathbf {x} [k]+T\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k].}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k+1]\approx (\mathbf {I} +\mathbf {A} T)\mathbf {x} [k]+T\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k].}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/99d598fbec5571a8636e4b8c8eee0c34e646e1b7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:35.267ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} [k+1]\approx (\mathbf {I} +\mathbf {A} T)\mathbf {x} [k]+T\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} [k].}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>D'autres approximations possibles sont <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \left(\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {A} T\right)^{-1}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \left(\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {A} T\right)^{-1}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/221aa7873d8e8cde1d4919cd5d6cae381c08249b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.6ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \left(\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {A} T\right)^{-1}}" loading="lazy"></span> et <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \left(\mathbf {I} +{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {A} T\right)\left(\mathbf {I} -{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {A} T\right)^{-1}}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \left(\mathbf {I} +{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {A} T\right)\left(\mathbf {I} -{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {A} T\right)^{-1}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e07381ef334886f7eef33b9121fc25660728b455.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:35.527ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \left(\mathbf {I} +{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {A} T\right)\left(\mathbf {I} -{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {A} T\right)^{-1}}" loading="lazy"></span>.
Chacun a des propriétés de stabilité différentes. On peut également mentionner la <a href="Transformation_bilin%C3%A9aire" title="Transformation bilinéaire">transformation bilinéaire</a>, ou transformation de Tustin, qui préserve les propriétés de stabilité du <a href="Syst%C3%A8me_continu" class="mw-redirect" title="Système continu">système continu</a> en temps.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discrétisation_d'équations_différentielles"><span id="Discr.C3.A9tisation_d.27.C3.A9quations_diff.C3.A9rentielles"></span>Discrétisation d'équations différentielles</h2></div>

<p>La résolution numérique d'une équation différentielle (ordinaire ou aux dérivées partielles) nécessite une discrétisation du <a href="Ensemble_de_d%C3%A9finition" title="Ensemble de définition">domaine de définition</a> de la solution (espace ou temps, voire les deux). Ainsi, d'une fonction <span class="texhtml"><i>u</i>(<b>x</b> , <i>t</i>)</span> définie sur un domaine <span class="texhtml">Ω</span> et un intervalle de temps <span class="texhtml">[0&nbsp;; <i>T</i>]</span>, on ne calculera que des valeurs <span class="texhtml">(<i>u</i>(<b>x</b><sub><i>i</i></sub> , <i>t<sup>n</sup></i>))</span>, où les <span class="texhtml"><b>x</b><sub><i>i</i></sub></span> sont des points de <span class="texhtml">Ω</span> et <span class="texhtml"><i>t</i><sup><i>n</i></sup></span> des instants de <span class="texhtml">[0&nbsp;; <i>T</i>]</span>. Pour cela, les opérateurs différentiels sont également approchés par des versions discrètes, comme la <a href="D%C3%A9riv%C3%A9e_seconde_discr%C3%A8te" title="Dérivée seconde discrète">dérivée seconde discrète</a>&nbsp;:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}\simeq {\frac {u_{i-1}-u_{i}}{x_{i-1}-x_{i}}}+{\frac {u_{i+1}-u_{i}}{x_{i+1}-x_{i}}}.}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}\simeq {\frac {u_{i-1}-u_{i}}{x_{i-1}-x_{i}}}+{\frac {u_{i+1}-u_{i}}{x_{i+1}-x_{i}}}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/620a8018a34441208bb9e80995d49c71a573ba0c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:31.221ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}\simeq {\frac {u_{i-1}-u_{i}}{x_{i-1}-x_{i}}}+{\frac {u_{i+1}-u_{i}}{x_{i+1}-x_{i}}}.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>La méthode de résolution (<a href="M%C3%A9thode_des_diff%C3%A9rences_finies" title="Méthode des différences finies">différences finies</a>, <a href="M%C3%A9thode_des_%C3%A9l%C3%A9ments_finis" title="Méthode des éléments finis">éléments finis</a> ou <a href="M%C3%A9thode_des_volumes_finis" title="Méthode des volumes finis">volumes finis</a>, pour citer les plus courantes) permet de construire un problème discret dont la solution est une approximation de la solution du problème continu. L'erreur commise a deux sources&nbsp;:
</p>
<ul><li>l'erreur de projection&nbsp;: en passant d'un espace continu à un espace discret, l'espace dans lequel la solution existante est changée&nbsp;;</li>
<li>l'erreur d'interpolation&nbsp;: le choix du schéma numérique et la définition de la grille espace-temps choisie pour la résolution va influer sur la qualité de l'approximation.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discrétisation_de_caractéristiques_continues"><span id="Discr.C3.A9tisation_de_caract.C3.A9ristiques_continues"></span>Discrétisation de caractéristiques continues</h2></div>
<p>En <a href="Statistique" title="Statistique">statistique</a> et <a href="Apprentissage_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Apprentissage machine">apprentissage machine</a>, la discrétisation renvoie à la conversion de variables ou caractéristiques continues en variables ou caractéristiques discrètes nominales. Ce procédé est utile pour créer des fonctions de densité de probabilités.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Références"><span id="R.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Références</h2></div>
<ul><li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé <span class="">«&nbsp;<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretization?oldid=843671970">Discretization</a>&nbsp;» <small>(<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretization?action=history">voir la liste des auteurs</a>)</small></span>.</li></ul>
<div class="references-small decimal" style=""><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="DeCarlo1989."><span class="ouvrage" id="Raymond_A._DeCarlo1989."><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Raymond A. DeCarlo, <cite class="italique" lang="en">Linear systems&nbsp;: A state variable approach with numerical implementation</cite>, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1989.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Linear+systems+%3A+A+state+variable+approach+with+numerical+implementation&amp;rft.pub=Prentice-Hall%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.aulast=DeCarlo&amp;rft.aufirst=Raymond+A.&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ADiscr%C3%A9tisation"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Van_Loan1978"><span class="ouvrage" id="Charles_Van_Loan1978"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Charles Van Loan, «&nbsp;<cite style="font-style:normal" lang="en">Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential</cite>&nbsp;», <i><span class="lang-en" lang="en">IEEE transactions on automatic control</span></i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr>&nbsp;23, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr>&nbsp;3,‎ <time>1978</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr>&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">395-404</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Computing+integrals+involving+the+matrix+exponential&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+transactions+on+automatic+control&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.au=Charles+Van+Loan&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.pages=395-404&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ADiscr%C3%A9tisation"></span></span></span>.</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voir_aussi">Voir aussi</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles_connexes">Articles connexes</h3></div>
<ul><li><a href="Espace_discret" class="mw-redirect" title="Espace discret">Espace discret</a></li>
<li>Algèbre temporelle</li>
<li><a href="Simulation_%C3%A0_%C3%A9v%C3%A9nements_discrets" title="Simulation à événements discrets">Simulation à événements discrets</a></li>
<li>Simulation stochastique</li>
<li>Méthode des volumes finis pour des flux instables</li>
<li>Temps discret et temps continu</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liens_externes">Liens externes</h3></div>
<ul><li><span class="ouvrage" id="Grover_Brown_&amp;_Patrick_Y._C._Hwang1997"><span class="ouvrage" id="Robert_Grover_Brown_&amp;_Patrick_Y._C._Hwang1997">Robert Grover Brown &amp; Patrick Y. C. Hwang, <cite class="italique">Introduction to random signals and applied Kalman filtering&nbsp;: with MATLAB exercises and solutions</cite>, 3rd, <time>1997</time>, 484&nbsp;<abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">978-0-471-12839-7</span>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+random+signals+and+applied+Kalman+filtering&amp;rft.pub=3rd&amp;rft.stitle=with+MATLAB+exercises+and+solutions&amp;rft.au=Robert+Grover+Brown+%26+Patrick+Y.+C.+Hwang&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.tpages=484&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-471-12839-7&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ADiscr%C3%A9tisation"></span></span></span></li>
<li><span class="ouvrage" id="Chen1984"><span class="ouvrage" id="Chi-Tsong_Chen1984">Chi-Tsong Chen, <cite class="italique">Linear System Theory and Design</cite>, Philadelphia, PA, USA, Saunders College Publishing, <time>1984</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">0-03-071691-8</span>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Linear+System+Theory+and+Design&amp;rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA%2C+USA&amp;rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&amp;rft.aulast=Chen&amp;rft.aufirst=Chi-Tsong&amp;rft.date=1984&amp;rft.isbn=0-03-071691-8&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ADiscr%C3%A9tisation"></span></span></span></li>
<li><span class="ouvrage" id="Van_Loan1978"><span class="ouvrage" id="Charles_Van_Loan1978"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Charles Van Loan, «&nbsp;<cite style="font-style:normal" lang="en">Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential</cite>&nbsp;», <i><span class="lang-en" lang="en">IEEE transactions on automatic control</span></i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr>&nbsp;23, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr>&nbsp;3,‎ <time>1978</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr>&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">395-404</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Computing+integrals+involving+the+matrix+exponential&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+transactions+on+automatic+control&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.au=Charles+Van+Loan&amp;rft.date=1978&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.pages=395-404&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ADiscr%C3%A9tisation"></span></span></span></li>
<li><span class="ouvrage" id="MiddletonGoodwin1990"><span class="ouvrage" id="R.H._MiddletonG.C._Goodwin1990">R.H. Middleton et G.C. Goodwin, <cite class="italique">Digital control and estimation&nbsp;: a unified approach</cite>, <time>1990</time>, 33&nbsp;<abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">0-13-211665-0</span>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Digital+control+and+estimation&amp;rft.stitle=a+unified+approach&amp;rft.aulast=Middleton&amp;rft.aufirst=R.H.&amp;rft.au=G.C.+Goodwin&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.tpages=33&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-211665-0&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ADiscr%C3%A9tisation"></span></span></span></li></ul>
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